References

(You can also Go straight to the full Bibliography)

This page contains links to most of the data and other material referred to in the endnotes in The Wisdom of Whores, i.e. the numbers that refer to the notes at the back of the book. They are organised by chapter. Page numbers are not given because they vary between editions of the book. For footnotes (the notes at the bottom of a page of text), please go to the footnotes page.

All papers referred to with a standard reference (for example: Burton and Mertens, 1998) are also found on the Bibliography page.

Preface | Chapter 01 | Chapter 02 | Chapter 03 | Chapter 04 | Chapter 05 | Chapter 06 | Chapter 07 | Chapter 08 | Chapter 09


Top
Preface: The Accidental Epidemiologist

0.1. The legendary paper which began the anti-smoking movement was published in 1950. (Doll and Hill, 1950). The Surgeon General’s first report on the subject was published on 11 January 1964. (US Surgeon General, 1964).

0.2. See the 2001 editorial ‘Our Policy on Policy’, Epidemiology,12 (4), 371–2.

0.3. Reagan mentioned AIDS for the first time in response to a reporter’s questions on 17 September 1985. For a transcript, see http://www.aegis.com/topics/timeline/RReagan-091785.html#R85

0.4. For a detailed history of the AIDS epidemic in the UK, see http://www.avert.org/uk-aids-history.htm


Top
Chapter 1: Cooking Up an Epidemic

1.1 Brown, 1992; Merson, 2006.

1.2 See for example this USAID tender for Cambodia.

1.3 E-mail 04/10/02. The document was eventually published as ‘Estimating the Size of Populations at Risk for HIV: Methods and Issues’, Family Health International, 2002.

1.4 You can find the results of their deliberations at http://www.data.unaids.org/pub//InformationNote/2006/EditorsNotes_en.pdf (PDF)

1.5 Data for 2006 from the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, http://www.plasticsurgery.org/media/statistics/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=23761 (PDF) Accessed 27 July 2007.

1.6 UNAIDS and WHO, 1996.

1.7 UNAIDS and WHO, 1997.

1.8 UNAIDS, 1998c.

1.9 Chin, 2007.

1.10 The methods are described in detail in Schwartlander et al., 1999. The model was developed by Jim Chin, who subsequently led the ‘UNAIDS is making it up’ chorus. See reference 9.

1.11 Burton and Mertens, 1998.

1.12 UNAIDS, 1998a.

1.13 The cost of the report does not appear in the UNAIDS report to its coordinating body. These figures were reported to me in early 2007 by a colleague involved in the 2006 publication. An exact accounting was said to be difficult because there is no clear budget line for the report; several different departments’ funds were tapped to pay for it.

1.14 Lawrence Altman, ‘Parts of Africa showing H.I.V. infection in 1 in 4 adults’, New York Times, 24 June 1998.

1.15 World Bank, 1997.

1.16 The World Bank meeting was held in January 1988; its results were summarized in a World Bank advocacy document as well as in four papers collectively published as: ‘Demographic Impact of AIDS’, Carael, M. and Schwartlander, B. (eds.), AIDS : Supplement 1.

1.17 National Intelligence Council, 2000.

1.18 USAID’s response to the congressional request was submitted in 2000 as The United States Responds to the Global AIDS Pandemic: An Analysis of Projected Targets, Goals and Resource Needs’.

1.19 Attaran and Sachs, 2001; Schwartlander et al., 2001b.

1.20 UNAIDS, 2006. Unpublished annual breakdowns courtesy of UNAIDS Asia-Pacific.

1.21 Synergy and USAID, 2001. The contribution of governments to financing HIV prevention in their own countries can be misleading. Much of it is required by donors as ‘matching funds’, as a way of demonstrating the home government’s own commitment to fighting HIV. This contribution is often made not in cash but by calculating a notional value for the use of government offices to hold meetings, etc.

1.22 Katherine Seelye, ‘Helms Puts the Brakes to a Bill Financing AIDS Treatment’, New York Times, 7 May 1995.

1.23 Chin and Mann, 1989.

Top
Chapter 2: Landscapes of Desire

2.1 Linnan, 1992; World Bank, 1996; Elmendorf et al., 2004; Jalal et al., 1994. See http://www.worldbank.org/ieg/aids/docs/case_studies/hiv_indonesia_case_study.pdf (PDF)

2.2 These estimates were arrived at in a workshop facilitated by WHO consultant Jim Chin in March 2001.

2.3 Lubis et al., 1997.

2.4 Hull et al., 1997.

2.5 For example, 25 per cent of unmarried urban men in a household survey in Cambodia said they had bought sex in the last year, compared with 18 per cent of married men. In rural areas there was less difference; 15 per cent of the unmarried were clients compared with 13 per cent of married men. Differences in proportions married mean that about half of all clients of prostitutes in Cambodia are married men. Source: Heng et al., 2001.

2.6 Of over 2,000 men in high-risk groups who told us they had sex with girlfriends, exactly half later said that they had paid those ‘girlfriends’ cash after sex. Some 11 per cent of them said they used condoms at last sex with their paid girlfriend compared with 30 per cent condom use with partners described as sex workers. You can find the whole dataset and accompanying documentation online here.

2.7 Elizabeth Pisani, ‘Hong Kong’s nightclub glamour is not what it seems’, Reuters, 4 May 1988.

2.8 In some countries, including Indonesia, it is now possible to avoid the cruising scene by using internet chat rooms and small ads in the paper. An example from the Jakarta Post, Indonesia’s leading English language daily: ‘BALI BROWN MASSAGE. Full body. In Bali. For man, by man. Call now Anton [phone number] 24 hours’. Personal ad, 12 December 2006.

2.9 Behavioural surveillance among 345 male sex workers, 2004. Indonesian Ministry of Health/Statistics Indonesia.

2.10 Zhang et al., 2007.

2.11 For example, in Indonesia’s easternmost region, more than threequarters of unmarried teenage Papuan girls who drink reported unprotected sex, compared with just over a quarter of non-drinkers. Some 54 per cent of Papuan boys who drank reported unprotected sex, compared with just 14 per cent of non-drinkers. Nationwide, men who said they used drugs were 50 per cent more likely to buy sex than non-drug users, and drug-using clients were also less likely to use condoms in commercial sex – less than a quarter of drug-using clients said they used a condom the last time they bought sex, compared with close to a third of non-drug takers. Among female prostitutes, 49 per cent of drug users reported condom use, compared with 58 per cent of non-users. In the Indonesian data the only groups for whom behaviour is equally risky regardless of drunkenness or drug use are the groups where those behaviours are most common: gay men and waria. All these data come from the national surveillance system operated by Indonesia’s Ministry of Health and Statistics Indonesia. You can find the whole dataset and accompanying documentation online here.

2.12 It turns out it is not every closet. A 2004 survey conducted by Yayasan Cinta Anak Bangsa, in cooperation with the National Narcotics Board and the University of Indonesia Institute of Applied Psychology, found that just one in ten families in Jakarta has a member involved in drug abuse.

2.13 Of all the groups included in behavioural surveillance in Indonesia, illegal drug use was highest among self-identified gays, 52 per cent of whom said they were users. Next, however, higher than waria or male and female prostitutes came school kids. In Jakarta in 2002, 34 per cent of boys said they had tried illegal drugs, while just 9 per cent had ever had sex. More than three times as many boys reported injecting drugs as reported sex with more than one person in the last year. Among girls, illegal drug use was slightly more common than sex; 6 per cent admitted to using drugs in the last year, compared with 5 per cent who said they had lost their virginity. Source: Indonesian national surveillance data, Ministry of Health/Statistics Indonesia.


Top
Chapter 3: The Honesty Box

3.1 Hamilton and Kessler, 2004.

3.2 Schwartländer et al., 2001a.

3.3 Family Health International, 2000; Mills et al., 1998.

3.4 Family Health International, 2002.

3.5 Indonesia Directorate General of Communicable Disease Control and Environmental Health, 2003.

3.6 For detailed guidelines on managing data from national surveillance systems, see Family Health International, 2006. Of all the ‘cookbooks’ I have ever written this is the most tedious, but by far the most useful.

3.7 World Health Organization, 2001.

3.8 Monitoring the AIDS Pandemic, Network (MAP), 2001.

3.9 Briefing notes on the need for centralised health surveillance systems

3.10 Kumalawati et al., 2002.

3.11 FDA warning letter to Akers

3.12 Overall, 2.5 per cent of gay men and 3.6 per cent of male sex workers were HIV infected, compared with 22 per cent of waria. See Pisani et al., 2004 for details.

3.13 UNAIDS, 2003.


Top
Chapter 4: The Naked Truth

4.1 We are accustomed to thinking about HIV in terms of ‘prevalence’, the percentage of adults aged 15–49 infected right now. In a handful of countries, this figure has already topped a third. But it conceals a reality that is even more appalling. Many people die of HIV well before they are 49, so people who would be counted as HIV infected will have already dropped out of the statistics. What’s more, many people get infected well after 15, so there are people in the cross-sectional percentage measure who are not yet infected, but who will eventually get HIV and die from it. If you add the ‘already dead’ and the ‘not yet infected’ to the ‘currently infected’, the prevalence figure can more than double. See Blacker and Zaba, 1997.

4.2 HIV prevalence among a nationally representative sample of 15–19- year-old girls in South Africa in 2005 was 9.4 per cent (South Africa Department of Health, 2006). HIV prevalence among female sex workers in China at end 2005: 0.7 per cent (Lu et al., 2006). HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged over 40 in Swaziland, 2004, was 38 per cent. HIV prevalence among pregnant women in this age group underestimates population prevalence because of reduced fertility. In 2003 some 37.5 per cent of 4,183 male employees at a large sugar corporation in Swaziland tested positive for HIV. From these figures, I extrapolate that senior civil servants in Swaziland are certainly more likely to be infected with HIV than Australian drug injectors, whose prevalence was around 1 per cent. (National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research, 2006). Source for Swaziland data: National Emergency Response Council on HIV/AIDS, Government of Swaziland (2006).

4.3 I cannot attempt in this one chapter to do justice to the complexities of HIV in Africa. For more comprehensive accounts see Barnett and Whiteside, 2006; Epstein, 2007; Hunter, 2003.

4.4 World Bank, 1997.

4.5 ‘Regressions explaining the percentage of the urban population infected with HIV’. From a presentation given by Mead Over to a meeting of the UNAIDS/WHO Reference Group on HIV Estimates, Modelling and Projections, held in Rome, 8–10 October 2000. See Over, 2000.

4.6 For a reliable and thoroughly documented description of the links between social and economic meltdown, risk behaviour and HIV, see Barnett and Whiteside, 2006.

4.7 Per capita income ($US): Botswana 5,073. South Africa 4,675. Mali: 371. Niger 228. Female literacy (per cent): Botswana 82. South Africa 81. Mali: 12. Niger 15. Percentage of adults infected with HIV: Botswana 24. South Africa 19. Mali: 2. Niger 1. (Sources: UNDP, UNAIDS.) HIV by income data from nationally representative DHS surveys (see www.measuredhs.com). For example, HIV prevalence among women in the poorest 20 per cent of households in Cameroon is 3.1 per cent. In the richest 20 per cent it is 8.0 per cent. Côte d’Ivoire 3.6 per cent vs 8.8 per cent, Ethiopia 0.3 vs 6.1, Uganda 4.8 vs 11.0, Tanzania 2.8 vs 11.4, Malawi 11 vs 18. The data for men are similar. Just 1.0 per cent of Ethiopian women with no education are HIV infected, while in women with secondary education or more, HIV is more than five times as high. Niger 0.5 per cent vs 1.2% per cent, Rwanda, 3.3 vs 6.4, Tanzania 5.8 vs 9.3.

4.8 De Gruttola et al., 1989.

4.9 De Vincenzi, 1994.

4.10 For two extremely comprehensive reviews of the relationship between HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, see Fleming and Wasserheit, 1999; Galvin and Cohen, 2004.

4.11 Bailey et al., 2007; Gray et al., 2007; Auvert et al., 2005.

4.12 Page-Shafer et al., 2002.

4.13 Buchacz et al., 2004; Tovanabutra et al., 2002; Hu et al., 2002; Bourlet et al., 2001; Quinn et al., 2000; Sabin et al., 2000; Chakraborty et al., 2001. There is an illustration which shows how viral load varies over time in the gallery section of www.wisdom ofwhores.com.

4.14 Brooks et al., 2006.

4.15 Buvé et al., 2001b; Auvert et al., 2001b; Auvert et al., 2001a; Corey et al., 2004.

4.16 See for example an important study investigating the differences in sexual behaviour in two high- and two low-prevalence areas in Africa. The study found that circumcision and the sexually transmitted herpes simplex virus explained more of the variation than differences in the number of sex partners (Buvé et al., 2001b).

4.17 Aral et al., 2005; Liljeros et al., 2003.

4.18 A number of international comparisons have shown that men and women in industrialized countries tend to report sex with more people over the course of their lives than men and women in Africa. Asian men (but not women) report more one-off partners – most of them prostitutes. But in the early 1990s, when HIV was just getting its teeth into Africa, men and women there were far more likely to say they had several partners on the go at once, according to a big round of comparative surveys. In Lesotho (where 23 per cent of adults are now infected with HIV), 55 per cent of men and 39 per cent of women reported more than one regular sex partner at the beginning of the 1990s, and a goodly proportion reported casual partners, too. (In these surveys, a regular partner was someone the respondent was married to, lived with, or had been sleeping with for more than a year.) In the Zambian capital Lusaka, where over a quarter of pregnant women tested positive for the virus, 22 per cent of men and half that proportion of women were doing the rounds of their regular lovers, and Tanzania looked much the same. In Côte d’Ivoire, over a third of men had more than one regular partner. And Côte d’Ivoire, with 7 per cent of all adults infected, has the highest HIV prevalence in West Africa, a region where HIV is generally rather low by the standards of the East and South of the continent. Compare this with the Asian countries in the study – the Philippines topped the charts with 3 per cent of both men and women admitting to two or more regular partners; Thailand, Sri Lanka and Singapore were all lower. Needless to say, rates of HIV infection are far, far lower in those countries too – the virus is seen in just 1.4 per cent of Thai adults, and it is virtually invisible in the other countries (Halperin and Epstein, 2004; Wellings et al., 2006; Caraël, 1995; Morris and Kretzschmar, 1997; Shelton, 2006). HIV data are from UNAIDS, 2006, with the exception of Lusaka, which is from the HIV database maintained by the US Census Bureau.

4.19 Wellings et al., 2006.

4.20 For data and references, see note 18 above and Wellings et al., 2006.

4.21 In the late 1990s in western Kenya, one in three nineteen-year-old girls was infected with HIV, and one in ten boys. In rural Zimbabwe, just 1 per cent of teenage boys was infected, but among girls there was seven times as much HIV. By the time they hit twenty-five, 38 per cent of girls were infected, and young men had caught up to about half the female rates (Buvé et al., 2001; Wilkinson et al., 2000). Zimbabwe data courtesy of Simon Gregson. These data appear on a graph in the gallery section of www.widomofwhores.com.

4.22 Gregson et al., 2002.

4.23 Data are from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) covering a nationally representative sample of adults in sixteen African countries. Examples: in Zimbabwe, 8.4 per cent of women who have never been married are infected with HIV, compared with 4.3 per cent of men who have never been married. Among those who have ever had sex, the difference is much greater: 23 per cent of sexually active single women are infected with HIV, compared with 6.2 per cent of never-married men who are not virgins. In Lesotho, 15 per cent of women who have never been married are infected with HIV, compared with 9 per cent of men. Malawi: 5 per cent vs 2 per cent, Tanzania 3.8 vs 3, Uganda 2.7 vs 0.8, Ethiopia 0.7 vs 0.3, Ghana 1.1 vs 0.3, Cameroon 3.5 vs 2.1, Côte d’Ivoire 4.6 vs 1.3, Senegal 0.3 vs zero. Only Niger has identical HIV rates in unmarried men and women, at 0.4 per cent.

4.24 Mishra et al., 2007. DHS data, 2003–2006. See also Pisani, 2001.

4.25 Carpenter et al., 1999.

4.26 For data and references, see note 18 above.

4.27 Cambodia National Center for HIV/AIDS Dermatology and STDs 2004; UNAIDS, 1998; Excel graph showing the relationship between average number of clients and HIV prevalence.

4.28 In Australia over 62 per cent of unmarried men said in recent surveys that they used condoms the last time they had sex, and in France, close to three-quarters did. In the United States, over 70 per cent of teenage boys who had sex used condoms. Condom use by single men in several African nations has risen by between 12 and 300 per cent in recent years in countries with available data, but only three – Burkina Faso, Uganda and Zimbabwe – topped 50 per cent. Unmarried women in France and Australia are more than twice as likely to use a condom with their partners than unmarried women in South Africa. Source: Demographic and Health Survey and other national survey data, kindly analysed by Emma Slaymaker. Full data table here.

4.29 Demographic and Health Survey data, analysed by Emma Slaymaker. Results with fewer than ten respondents not presented. Full data table here.

4.30 J. D. Shelton and B. Johnston, 2001.

4.31 Shafer et al., 2006; Halperin, 2006; Green et al., 2006; Stoneburner and Low-Beer, 2004a; Stoneburner and Low-Beer, 2004b; USAID, 2002; Parkhurst, 2002; Epstein, 2007.

4.32 Shafer et al., 2006.

4.33 ‘Sacking the wrong health minister’, The Economist, 18 August 2007.

4.34 Annan, 2001.

4.35 See Cohen and Trussel, 1996, Chapter 4.

4.36 Story spiked by The Economist (.doc)

4.37 For a fascinating history of the approach taken to infectious disease and HIV control in industrialized countries, see Baldwin, 2005.

4.38 HIV prevalence in Swaziland is 43 per cent. In the worst cases, where poorly stored condoms are used by couples with little experience, up to 10 per cent can break. In more normal usage, only about 2 per cent burst (see chapter 6 for references). So the chance of being exposed to HIV while using a condom in Swaziland is between 0.9 and 4.3 per cent. HIV among sex workers in China is 0.7 per cent. Infection rates in the general population are far lower (Lu et al., 2006).

4.39 Koop, 1988.


Top
Chapter 5: Sacred Cows

5.1 Susan Hunter, AIDS in Asia: A continent in peril. I was quoted as saying that Indonesia has one of the fastest-growing epidemics in the world – I think the quote may have been lifted from a news report. In any case, I was obviously indulging in the kind of creative epidemiology described in Chapter 1.

5.2 Blower et al., 2000.

5.3 San Francisco Department of Public Health, 2005; Schwarcz et al., 2002; Stockman et al., 2004; McFarland and DeCarlo, 2003; Dilley et al., 2003; Kellogg et al., 1999; US CDC 1985. Measures of condom use in anal sex are not exactly comparable until 1994. Before that, condom use refers only to use with ‘non-monogamous’ partners. From 1994, the measure refers to unprotected anal sex with any partner over the preceding six months. From 1998, it has been possible to look at condom use by HIV status, as well as by the HIV status of partners – the same as the respondent, the opposite, or unknown. Unprotected anal sex between HIV positive men and partners who were negative or didn’t know their status peaked at around 30 per cent in 2001. The rise in HIV incidence prompted renewed prevention efforts, and that 30 per cent has since fallen dramatically, to around 10 per cent in 2005. An excellent presentation of trends in behaviour and infection among gay men in San Francisco is posted under the tag ‘gay’ on www.wisdomofwhores.com.

5.4 Elford et al., 2002; Elford et al., 2001; Stolte et al., 2001; Dukers et al., 2002; Hogg et al., 2001.

5.5 Global HIV Prevention Working Group, 2004.

5.6 Martin, 2007.

5.7 Watts, 2003.

5.8 Elisabeth Rosenthal reported the political turning point in an article in the New York Times on 24 August 2001, under the headline: ‘China Now Facing an AIDS Epidemic, a Top Aide Admits’.

5.9 World Health Organization and UNAIDS, 2007.

5.10 See, for example, the 30 May 2007 statement from Human Rights Watch, http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/05/30/global16020.htm

5.11 Gregson et al., 2002; Vanichseni et al., 2004a; San Francisco Department of Public Health, 2005. In Surabaya in 2004/5, 50 per cent of gay guys who had had counselling and a voluntary HIV test reported unprotected anal sex in the last week, versus 37 per cent among those who hadn’t tested. Among rent boys in Jakarta, 45 per cent who had tested were having risky sex, compared with 29 per cent of those who didn’t know their HIV status. Among female sex workers, 53 per cent of those who had been counselled and tested for HIV voluntarily used condoms with all their clients in the last week, compared with 32 per cent of sex workers who hadn’t been counselled and tested.

5.12 Graph of the greatest possible impact of our programmes at current levels of coverage.

5.13 Indonesia: National behavioural surveillance data for sex workers who were reached by only-government or only-NGO programmes. For sex workers in both types of programme, condom use was higher still at 83 per cent. China: Behavioural data collected by the China-UK HIV Prevention Project, selected sites in Yunnan and Sichuan, 2003. You can find the Indonesian dataset and accompanying documentation online here.

5.14 See data from the Philippines Department of Health’s National Epidemiology Center at: http://www2.doh.gov.ph/nec/HIV

5.15 The proportion of men buying sex nationwide fell from 22 per cent to 10 per cent. Among military conscripts in the north it fell from 57 per cent to 24 per cent and among vocational students in Bangkok it fell from 31 per cent to 5 per cent. There was also a shift from buying sex from women in brothels (referred to as ‘direct sex workers’) to buying sex from women who worked as hostesses in clubs and karaoke bars – ‘indirect sex workers’. (UNAIDS, 1998b; Phoolcharoen et al., 1998; Nelson et al., 1996; Mills et al., 1997; Hanenberg et al., 1994; Hanenberg and Rojanapithayakorn, 1998.

5.16 De Zoysa et al., 2005. I should note that despite this rhetorical flourish, the document later describes most of the elements of a blackmail-based programme in some detail.

5.17 Wolffers, 1998.

5.18 China-UK AIDS Prevention Project, 2003. This file, at 137 pages in English and Chinese and at 7.8 megabytes when zipped, is too big to post. Sorry.


Top
Chapter 6: Articles of Faith

6.1 George W. Bush, speaking to the Exodus Baptist Church in Philadelphia, June 2004. He made the same point in his 2004 State of the Union speech.

6.2 In a nationally representative survey of over 11,400 adolescents in the United States followed in three rounds between 1995 and 2001, 21 per cent of respondents reported they had taken a virginity pledge. Some who said in early rounds that they had made such a pledge denied it in later rounds of the survey.

6.3 http://www.generationsoflight.com/generationsoflight/html/index.html Accessed May 2004.

6.4 Bruckner and Bearman, 2005; Bruckner et al., 2004; Wellings et al., 2006.

6.5 Underhill et al., 2007.

6.6 Office of the United States Global AIDS Coordinator, 2004 # 8577.

6.7 For example, in October 2004 USAID announced the winners of the Abstinence and Healthy Choices for Youth grant, a $100 million, five-year programme run through USAID’s Washington DC office. Of the eleven grant recipients announced, nine were faith-based, and all but one were US-based. http://www.usaid.gov/press/releases/2004/pr.html, accessed 22 June 2007.

6.8 United States, 2003. Public Law 108–25. United States Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Act, Washington DC. Section 402.

6.9 Wellings et al., 2006.

6.10 Cleland and Ferry, 1995; Wellings et al., 2006.

6.11 Ono-Kihara_02Ono-Kihara et al., 2002 # 7665.

6.12 Chen Xinxin, ‘Sex and the Contemporary Chinese woman’, China Today, 2005.

6.13 According to UNICEF, there were 103 girls enrolled in secondary school in Thailand through the late 1990s for every 100 boys.

6.14 Van Griensven et al., 2001; UNAIDS, 1998b; Thato et al., 2003. The northern study used a computerized questionnaire, so girls fessed up to a machine rather than a human being. The big leap in premarital sex probably reflects more honesty as well as more sex.

6.15 The numbers in detail: in per cent buy sex, 58 per cent of prostitutes are infected, 39 per cent of commercial sex is unprotected. The risk of exposure in commercial sex is 57% × 58% × 39% = 13%. Some 23 per cent have a girlfriend, 0.7 per cent of young women are infected, and 84 per cent of sex with girlfriends is unprotected. An additional 0.2 per cent risk of exposure. In 1999 7 per cent buy sex, 26 per cent of prostitutes are infected, 60 per cent of commercial sex is unprotected. The risk of exposure in commercial sex is 7% × 26% × 60% = 1.1%. Some 42 per cent now have a girlfriend, 0.8 per cent of young women are infected, and 84 per cent of sex with girlfriends is unprotected. That means 0.3 per cent of young men in northern Thailand will be exposed to HIV through their girlfriends. 1990 data from Nelson et al., 1996. 1999 data from a study of vocational students in the same geographic area. Van Griensven et al., 2001. The study populations were not identical – in 1990 the men questioned were men chosen through a random ballot of all 21-year-olds while the students questioned in 1999 were rather younger and more educated. The younger study population probably explains the lower levels in overall levels of sexual activity recorded in 1999 – just 48 per cent of the male students had had sex in 1999, compared with 87 per cent of conscripts in 1995. But even if we double overall levels of sexual activity in the student group to mirror levels of sex in the older conscript group, we get an overall risk of exposure of under three per cent. The HIV prevalence data come from the Thai national surveillance system.

6.16 UNAIDS, 1998b. When the fall in unprotected commercial sex and the fall in STIs are set on the same graph, the parallel is striking. See the gallery section of www.wisdomofwhores.com.

6.17 British Broadcasting Corporation, Panorama, ‘Sex and the Holy City’, 10 October 2003.

6.18 Steiner et al., 1994; Steiner et al., 1993. See also http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/factsheets/breakslip.htm. Condom breakage is not random – most of it is associated with improper use. In many studies, a small proportion of couples accounts for a very large proportion of reported breakage.

6.19 Kamenga et al., 1991; Dublin et al., 1992; Allen et al., 1992; Padian et al., 1993; Weller, 1993; Deschamps et al., 1996; Davis and Weller, 1999; Gray et al., 2001; de Vincenzi, 1994; Weller and Davis-Beaty, 2001.

6.20 ‘Stop Giving Free Condoms, Say Clerics’, The Nation (Nairobi, Kenya), 29 November 2006. (Electronic version behind firewall here). HIV data from the nationally representative Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, 2003.

6.21 Statement of Richard Carmona to Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, Congress of the United States, 10 July 2007. http://www.oversight.house.gov/documents/.pdf (PDF)

6.22 Letter dated 18 December 2003.

6.23 The original 1999 fact sheet cited data from three studies of discordant couples. In one, there were no new HIV infections in two years among 124 HIV couples who always used condoms, while in 121 couples who didn’t always use condoms, 10 per cent became infected. In the second study, infection rates were 2 per cent and 12 per cent respectively, and in the third 2 per cent among consistent condom users and 14 per cent among inconsistent users. (Citations in note 19 above.) The fact sheet also cites information from thirty studies about sex education programmes. None of them increased sexual activity and those that provided detailed information about condoms and skills training both decreased sexual activity and increased condom use among those who were sexually active. For comparison, see the new (2003) version of the fact sheet.

6.24 ‘Male Latex Condoms and Sexually Transmitted Diseases’, CDC fact sheet, 23 January 2003: http://www.cdc.gov/condomeffectiveness/condoms.pdf (PDF)

6.25 The old fact sheet has disappeared from the CDC site, but you can find it here
.
6.26 The last comparative data available are for 2004. In Bangladesh, just over a third of brothel-based sex workers used a condom with their most recent client, and among street-based sex workers condom use was lower. In Pakistan’s two largest cities between 23 and 40 per cent of sex workers reported using condoms with their most recent client, and no client group reported more than 20 per cent use. In Indonesia, condom use with the last client had inched up to 53 per cent on average in thirteen cities by 2004.

6.27 Condom use at last commercial sex reported most recently by national surveillance system (data 2004 or later) was above 80 per cent in all of these countries.

6.28 You can find the poster here.

6.29 Weller and Davis-Beaty, 2001.

6.30 Sixty-seven per cent of women who asked all of their clients to use condoms used them with all clients. Less than 5 per cent of those who didn’t always ask were consistent condom users.

6.31 Cohen, 2005.

6.32 http://www.unaids.org/en/Issues/Affected_communities, accessed April 2007.

6.33 For a listing of reports and documentaries on sex trafficking, see http://www.badasf.org/slavery/modernslavery.htm

6.34 This estimate is a compilation of data from various sources, including national estimates published by the governments of Cambodia, China, Indonesia and Thailand, and research reports from India, Vietnam, Nepal and the Philippines.

6.35 Exactly what constitutes trafficking is not clear. For those interested in this issue, I would thoroughly recommend the works of Helen Pickering, who worked with prostitutes in both West and East Africa. She told me that when she first met a sex worker, she would often get a sob story about trickery, destitution, etc. When she got to know the girls better, she was invited home to family events and found that most sex workers came from middle-class families who were supportive of their income-generating activity. They cheerfully admitted to having made up their histories to meet the researchers’ expectations. See for example Pickering et al., 1992.

6.36 http://www.etan.org/et2003/july/05-12/08claim.htm

6.37 Data on earnings among factory workers in Jakarta (the highest paying province in Indonesia), 2004, from the government statistical office, StatisticsIndonesia. Hourly ‘wage’ for sex work calculated from earnings reported by nearly 10,700 prostitutes in Indonesia. In 2004 clients paid an average of US$24 each. Over a quarter of these women are earning US$5.50 or less per client. Women at the bottom of the market tend to have more clients, so weekly earnings even for the lowest-paid are US$37 – more than four times what they would earn in a week in a factory.

6.38 Elmer, 2001; Neal et al., 2004; Monitoring the AIDS Pandemic, 2004.

6.39 The average hourly wage for the 73 per cent of New York City’s restaurant workers who are immigrants is $8.55, according to data from the US Census Bureau and the Economic Policy Institute. Data reproduced in Dollars and Sense: http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2006/0906ness.html

6.40 US State Department, 2006; De Zoysa et al., 2005.

6.41 Haugen and Hunter, 2005; Zurita, 2005.

6.42 The requirement came in an amendment to H.R. 1298, the United States Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Act. It reads: ‘(f) LIMITATION. – No funds made available to carry out this Act, or any amendment made to this Act, may be used to provide assistance to any group or organization that does not have a policy explicitly opposing prostitution and sex trafficking.’

6.43 Asian Wall Street Journal, 27 February 2003.

6.44 The head of IJM, Gary Hauger, describes one such operation in Cambodia in great detail in his book, Terrify No More.

6.45 Name changed.

6.46 Amy Kazmin, ‘Deliver them from evil’, Financial Times, 9 July 2004.

6.47 The raid is described in blow-by-bow detail by IJM President Gary Haughen in his 2005 book Terrify No More. When the IJM team flew in to conduct the raid, they had the foresight to bring with them a camera crew from the American TV show Dateline NBC (Haugen and Hunter, 2005).

6.48 Gates Foundation press release, accessed 9/12/2101. Or find it here.

6.49 The Cambodian Working Group on HIV/AIDS Projection estimates that without the aggressive condom promotion campaign, which began to reduce the rate of new infections among sex workers and their clients from the mid-1990s, there would have been nearly 1.1 million Cambodians living with HIV by the end of 2005. Largely because of vastly increased condom use in commercial sex, the true number of people infected at the end of 2005 was fewer than 120,000. The full report is here.


Top
Chapter 7: HIV Shoots Up

7.1 The reference in the printed version of The Wisdom contains a url for the ‘Harm Promotion’ part of the Drug Free America Foundation’s website. I’m happy to report that they have moderated their language. The new text can be found here. The original here harm promotion.

7.2 By 2005, the most recent year for which data are available, Glasgow was giving out over a million needles a year to cover the needs of just under 5,000 injectors – around 210 per injector per year. Edinburgh estimates it has far fewer injectors – around 1,000 – but they managed to soak up around 480 needles a year each from syringe and needle programmes. Over half of these needles were given out by programmes run out of high street pharmacies. (Griesbach et al., 2006.)

7.3 Davies et al., 1999; Frischer et al., 1992; Stimson, 1996; Stimson et al., 1996; Hurley et al., 1997; Buning et al., 1986; MacDonald et al., 2003; Stimson, 1995; Taylor et al., 1994; Robertson, 1990.

7.4 Des Jarlais et al., 2005.

7.5 Des Jarlais et al., 1995; Hagan et al., 1995; Vlahov et al., 1997; Buning et al., 1986; Van Den Hoek et al., 1989; Drucker et al., 1998. For a fully referenced round-up of evidence of the effect of needle exchange programmes in Asia, see Monitoring the AIDS Pandemic, 2004; Bluthenthal et al., 2000.

7.6 Strathdee et al., 1997. Vancouver became the first North American city to open a safe injecting room in 2003.

7.7 Schechter et al., 1999; Hagan et al., 1999; Bastos and Strathdee, 2000.

7.8 US data: Anthony et al., 1994; Canadian data: Health Canada, 1997.

7.9 Strathdee and Vlahov, 2001; Vietnam national sentinel surveillance data.

7.10 UNAIDS, 2002.

7.11 Sorensen and Copeland, 2000.

7.12 Dolan et al., 2005; Palepu et al., 2006; Stark et al., 1996; Hartel and Schoenbaum, 1998; Brugal et al., 2005; Langendam et al., 2001.

7.13 Wu et al, 2007.

7.14 In Bangkok, injectors who went to jail but said they didn’t inject drugs there were twice as likely to get infected as those who didn’t go to jail – the increase might be related to anal sex, though they may also have become infected in police holding cells before they went to jail.

7.15 McCoy et al., 1994.

7.16 World Health Organization et al., 2007.

7.17 Vanichseni et al., 2004b; Beyrer et al., 2003; Buavirat et al., 2003; Choopanya et al., 2002.

7.18 Dolan et al., 2003b; Dolan et al., 1996; Warren et al., 2006; Dolan et al., 2005; Heimer et al., 2006.

7.19 Pepfar IDU guidance, 2006
7.20 http://www.dfaf.org/harmpromotion/maintenance.php, accessed 27 June 2007.

7.21 Stark et al., 2006.

7.22 Heimer, 1998; Brooner et al., 1998; Strathdee et al., 1999; Palepu et al., 1999; Vlahov et al., 1997; Marx et al., 2000; Doherty et al., 2000.

7.23 Griesbach et al., 2006; Abdulrahim et al., 2006.

7.24 National Commission on AIDS, 1991; Lurie and Reingold, 1993; United States General Accounting Office, 1993; United States General Accounting Office, 1998; Office of Technology Assessment of the US Congress, 1995; National Research Council, 1995; National Institutes of Health, 1997; American Medical Association, 1997; US Surgeon General, 2000; Institute of Medicine, 2001; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2002; Institute of Medicine, 2006.

7.25 Data from the Indonesian national surveillance system. Here’s a powerpoint evaluating the Talenta programme.

7.26 Vlahov et al., 1991; Vlahov et al., 1994; Titus et al., 1994; World Health Organization, 2004.

7.27 Des Jarlais et al., 2005; World Health Organization, 2006; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2007.

7.28 Office of the United States Global AIDS Coordinator, 2004.

7.29 The e-mail was leaked to public health professionals on 20 December 2004.

7.30 Henry Waxman wrote to US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice on 24 June 2005 to protest these efforts.

7.31 Between 1995 and 2006, the US gave UNAIDS US$225 million, around 18 per cent of its total budget. The Netherlands was next most generous at US$215 million. On a per capita basis, that in fact makes the Netherlands seventeen times more generous than the US. In 2006 the Netherlands gave the most, US$38 million, with Sweden in second place. The US ranked third at US$29.8 million, just a million dollars ahead of the UK.

7.32 Letter from William Steiger, Director of the US Department of Health and Human Services Office of Global Health Affairs to Denis G. Aitken, Assistant Director-General of WHO, 15 April 2004. The letter stated: ‘US Government experts do not and cannot participate in WHO consultations in their individual capacity. U.S. . . . regulations require HHS [US health ministry] experts to serve as representatives of the U.S. Government at all times and advocate U.S. Government policies.’

7.33 Letter from Congressman Henry Waxman to Director of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson, 28 October 2003.

7.34 The PDF report is here. Beware, it is 34 MB. Not that the IAS want to make it hard to access the information.

7.35 Human Rights Watch, 2004.

7.36 World Health Organization, 2001.

7.37 Kral et al., 2001; Mirin et al., 1980; Mendelson and Mello, 1982.

7.38 In 2004/5, 54 per cent of guys who had been injecting a year or less reported multiple sex partners in the last year, compared with 50 per cent among those injecting between two and six years. By the time people had been injecting for seven or more years, 39 per cent still reported sex with more than one partner.

7.39 Van Ameijden et al., 1999.

7.40 In a study in San Antonio, Texas, 71 per cent of regular methamphetamine users reported more than one recent sex partner, compared with just 39 per cent of heroin users (Zule and Desmond, 1999).

7.41 For a comprehensive summary of the data, see Monitoring the AIDS Pandemic, 2004.

7.42 Data from Sichuan province, courtesy of China CDC and the China UK AIDS Prevention Project. Forty seven per cent of injectors who sold unprotected sex to clients shared the needles the last time they injected, compared with just 17 per cent of female injectors who don’t sell sex. Over three-quarters of sex workers who didn’t inject used a condom with their most recent client, compared with just half of sex workers who inject.

7.43 Injectors in outpatient treatment were first tested in Jakarta in 1996/97. None of the fifty samples tested positive. The following year, still zero, out of sixty-three tests. By 2001, 105 out of 219 tests were positive (Pisani et al., 2003c).


Top
Chapter 8: Ants in the Sugar-Bowl

8.1 Spending for 2007 was estimated on the basis of pledges and commitments already made by donors, as well as from budgetary allocations and projections made by developing country governments (UNAIDS, 2005).

8.2 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2006.

8.3 Ghana figures compiled by David Wilson, Global HIV/AIDS Programme, World Bank.

8.4 http://www.pepfar.gov/countries/c19637.htm

8.5 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, 2003. In addition, 22 per cent of men and just 2 per cent of women contacted in households said they had multiple partners in the last year. Men always report more partners than women, but that is a huge discrepancy by any standards. Polygamy may account for part of the difference, but it is likely that some of the women that guys reported as girlfriends were actually prostitutes. Levels of reported condom use would suggest so – men reported almost the same level of condom use with their last non-marital partner (46 per cent) as they did with a sex worker (49 per cent). If even half the men reporting multiple partners sometimes paid for sex, it would mean 4 million clients of sex workers.

8.6 US Census Bureau HIV Database. The Saki study was among just sixty-one women. In Ibadan, 243 prostitutes were tested.

8.7 Adelekan and Lawal, 2006.

8.8 These are my calculations, using data from the OECD’s development assistance committee database. The database is incomplete because donors do not always report their spending accurately. I therefore report trends over time (which are less affected by under-reporting) rather than dollar amounts. See Kaiser Family Foundation, 2007 for a discussion of the limitations of the database.

8.9 Incidence estimates are made using the model described in Pisani et al., 2003b. Sources for finance data as follows: China: supplied by Salil Panakadan of the UNAIDS office in Beijing. Thailand: Tangcharoensathien et al., 2006. Cambodia: Martin, 2005.

8.10 Huffam et al., 2002.

8.11 Quoted in a UNDP press release, 3 July 2002.

8.12 George W. Bush, speaking on 31 May 2007.

8.13 Pisani et al., 2006.

8.14 Briefing paper on care and support provided to US Ambassador in East Timor.

8.15 Recently, USAID has started buying some condoms in Asia because American manufacturers can’t keep up with demand. See Celia Dugger, ‘U.S. Jobs Shape Condoms’ Role in Foreign Aid’, New York Times, 26 October 2006.

8.16 Even the US government’s auditors complain about how clumsy and wasteful these procurement procedures are. See United States General Accounting Office, 2001.

8.17 Médecins Sans Frontières, 2003.

8.18 Information on current purchases of generics from the PEPFAR website, http://www.pepfar.gov/press/83466.htm, accessed 1 June 2007.

8.19 World Health Organization, 2007.

8.20 Global Fund site accessed 23 June 2007. George Bush speech 31 May 2007.

8.21 Avahan monitoring data, September 2007.

8.22 http://www.theglobalfund.org/programs/grantdetails.aspx?compid=375&grantid=139&=en&CountryId=IND, accessed 2 June 2007. Current link available here (10/12/2010) The Global Fund is absolutely exemplary in terms of the information it makes available to the public. All grant applications, evaluations and ‘scorecards’ are posted on its well-organized website.

8.23 My notes from a World Bank STI programme review debriefing, 10 February 1999.

8.24 This evaluation of an IDU programme FHI funded in Surabaya is an example of the sort of evaluation that loses friends (Powerpoint presentation).


Top
Chapter 9: Full Circle

9.1 The Kompas piece appeared on 29 September 2001. It took two years of nagging before that statement was translated into official policy. The National Narcotics Control Board signed a memorandum of understanding with the National AIDS Commission formalizing harm reduction as a national strategy for drug users on 8 December 2003.

9.2 Examples from Indonesia: WHO paid the Population Council to adapt and translate guidelines for behavioural surveillance produced by WHO’s Southeast Asian Regional Office, even though Indonesia already had its own, far more advanced guidelines, produced by the Bureau of Statistics together with the Ministry of Health and paid for by USAID. UNAIDS organized a series of meetings and hired a consultant to develop an Indonesian version of something called the Country Response Information System, a database pushed by Geneva, even though Indonesia’s Bureau of Statistics was already developing a more appropriate and comprehensive database in consultation with the Ministry of Health and all major organizations working in AIDS, including UNAIDS.

9.3 E-mail, Chris Green to EP, 17 December 2003.

9.4 At the time, there were no systematic estimates of the number of people in high-risk groups. There were also wildly differing views about the number of people likely to have been infected through the dodgy blood transfusion practices. Chinese colleagues claimed the number was 200,000 or fewer, while some foreign consultants guesstimated it as at least 900,000, and possibly much higher. Mass screenings carried out in 2004 suggest the lower figure was much closer to the truth.

9.5 UN Theme Group on HIV/AIDS in China, 2001.

9.6 Wu et al., 2007.
Zotero
END


Below are citations from the public Zotero folder for the Wisdom of Whores book. We are using the APA style for citation.

Doll, R., & Hill, A. B. (1950). Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report. Br Med J, 2(4682), 739–748. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=14772469
U.S. Surgeon General. (1964, January 11). Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service.
Mirin, S. M., Meyer, R. E., Mendelson, J. H., & Ellingboe, J. (1980). Opiate use and sexual function. Am J Psychiatry, 137(8), 909–915. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6774622
Mendelson, J. H., & Mello, N. K. (1982). Hormones and psycho-sexual development in young men following chronic heroin use. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol, 4(4), 441–445. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=7121695
US CDC. (1985). Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Self-Reported Behavioral Change Among Gay and Bisexual Men -- San Francisco. MMWR, 34(40), 613–615.
Buning, E. C., Coutinho, R. A., van Brussel, G. H., van Santen, G. W., & van Zadelhoff, A. W. (1986). Preventing AIDS in drug addicts in Amsterdam. Lancet, 1(8495), 1435. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=2872527
Koop, C. (1988). Individual freedom and the public interest. In First International Conference on the Global Impact of AIDS (pp. 307–311). London, March 8-10, 1988: Alan R. Liss.
Chin, J., & Mann, J. (1989). Global surveillance and forecasting of AIDS. Bull World Health Organ, 67(1), 1–7. Retrieved from R:/M901-1000/m000929.pdf
De Gruttola, V., Seage, G. R. d., Mayer, K. H., & Horsburgh, C. R. (1989). Infectiousness of HIV between male homosexual partners. J Clin Epidemiol, 42(9), 849–856. Retrieved from R:/M1201-1300/m001225.pdf
Van Den Hoek, J., Van Haastrecht, H., & Coutinho, R. (1989). Risk Reduction Among Intravenous Drug Users in Amsterdam Under the Influence of AIDS. American Journal of Public Health, 79(10), 1355–1357. Retrieved from R:/P501-600/p000579.pdf
Robertson, R. (1990). The Edinburgh epidemic: a case study. In IDS and Drug Misuse: The Challenge for Policy and Practice in the 1990s (pp. 95–107). New York: Routledge.
Kamenga, M., Ryder, R. W., Jingu, M., Mbuyi, N., Mbu, L., Behets, F., … Heyward, W. L. (1991). Evidence of marked sexual behavior change associated with low HIV-1 seroconversion in 149 married couples with discordant HIV-1 serostatus: Experience at an HIV counselling center in Zaire. AIDS, 5(1), 61–67. Retrieved from R:/P201-300/p000235.pdf
National Commission on AIDS. (1991). The Twin Epidemics of Substance Use and HIV.
Vlahov, D., Munoz, A., Celentano, D. D., Cohn, S., Anthony, J. C., Chilcoat, H., & Nelson, K. E. (1991). HIV seroconversion and disinfection of injection equipment among intravenous drug users, Baltimore, Maryland. Epidemiology, 2(6), 444–446. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1790197
Allen, S., Tice, J., Van de Perre, P., Serufilira, A., Hudes, E., Nsengumuremyi, F., … Hulley, S. (1992). Effect of serotesting with counselling on condom use and seroconversion among HIV discordant couples in Africa. Bmj, 304(6842), 1605–1609. Retrieved from R:/P101-200/p000161.pdf
Dublin, S., Rosenberg, P. S., & Goedert, J. J. (1992). Patterns and predictors of high-risk sexual behavior in female partners of HIV-infected men with hemophilia. AIDS, 6(5), 475–482. Retrieved from R:/M601-700/m000634.pdf
Linnan, M. (1992). AIDS in Indonesia: The Coming Storm.
Pickering, H., Todd, J., Dunn, D., Pepin, J., & Wilkins, A. (1992). Prostitutes and their clients: a Gambian survey. Soc Sci Med, 34(1), 75–88. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1738859
Brown, P. (1992). World AIDS Programme “Lacks Vision.” New Scientist, 1806, 14.
Frischer, M., Green, S. T., Goldberg, D. J., Haw, S., Bloor, M., McKeganey, N., … et al. (1992). Estimates of HIV infection among injecting drug users in Glasgow, 1985-1990. AIDS, 6(11), 1371–1375. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1472341
Lurie, P., & Reingold, A. (1993). The public health impact of needle exchange programs in the United States and abroad,Vol. 1. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Padian, N. S., O’Brien, T. R., Chang, Y., Glass, S., & Francis, D. P. (1993). Prevention of heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus through couple counseling. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 6(9), 1043–1048. Retrieved from R:/P201-300/p000258.pdf
Steiner, M., Piedrahita, C., Joanis, C., & Glover, L. (1993). Can Condom Users Likely to Experience Condom Failure Be Identified? Family Planning Perspectives, 25(5), 220-223,226.
United States General Accounting Office. (1993). Needle Exchange Programmes: Research Suggests Promise as an AIDS Prevention Strategy.
Weller, S. C. (1993). A meta-analysis of condom effectiveness in reducing sexually transmitted HIV. Soc Sci Med, 36(12), 1635–1644. Retrieved from R:/T301-400/t000365.pdf
Anthony, J., Warner, L., & Kessler, R. (1994). Comparative Epidemiology of Dependence on Tobacco, Alcohol, Controlled Substances and Inhalants. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3(3), 244–268.
de Vincenzi, I. (1994). A longitudinal study of human immunodeficiency virus transmission by heterosexual partners. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV [see comments]. N Engl J Med, 331(6), 341–346. Retrieved from R:/P301-400/p000348.pdf
Hanenberg, R. S., Rojanapithayakorn, W., Kunasol, P., & Sokal, D. C. (1994). Impact of Thailand’s HIV-control programme as indicated by the decline of sexually transmitted diseases. Lancet, 344(8917), 243–245. Retrieved from R:/P201-300/p000208.pdf
Jalal, F., Abednego, H. M., Sadjimin, T., & Linnan, M. J. (1994). HIV and AIDS in Indonesia. Aids, 8(Suppl 2), S91-4. Retrieved from R:/C1-100/c000070.pdf
Steiner, M., Piedrahita, C., Joanis, C., Glover, L., & Spruyt, A. (1994). Condom Breakage and Slippage Rates Among Study Participants in Eight Countries. International Family Planning Perspectives, 20:(2), 55–58.
Taylor, A., Frischer, M., Green, S. T., Goldberg, D., McKeganey, N., & Gruer, L. (1994). Low and stable prevalence of HIV among drug injectors in Glasgow. Int J STD AIDS, 5(2), 105–107. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8031910
McCoy, C. B., Rivers, J. E., McCoy, H. V., Shapshak, P., Weatherby, N. L., Chitwood, D. D., … McBride, D. C. (1994). Compliance to bleach disinfection protocols among injecting drug users in Miami. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 7(7), 773–776. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8207662
Titus, S., Marmor, M., Des Jarlais, D., Kim, M., Wolfe, H., & Beatrice, S. (1994). Bleach use and HIV seroconversion among New York City injection drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 7(7), 700–704. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8207647
Vlahov, D., Astemborski, J., Solomon, L., & Nelson, K. E. (1994). Field effectiveness of needle disinfection among injecting drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 7(7), 760–766. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8207660
Carael, M. (1995). Sexual behaviour. In Sexual Behaviour and AIDS in the Developing World (pp. 75–123). London: Taylor & Francis. Retrieved from R:/PS101-200/ps00103.pdf
Cleland, J., & Ferry, B. (1995). Sexual Behavior and AIDS in the Developing World (Complete book). London: Taylor & Francis. Retrieved from R:/PS1-100/ps00080.pdf
Des Jarlais, D. C., Hagan, H., Friedman, S. R., Friedmann, P., Goldberg, D., Frischer, M., … et al. (1995). Maintaining low HIV seroprevalence in populations of injecting drug users [see comments]. JAMA, 274(15), 1226–1231. Retrieved from R:/P101-200/p000194.pdf
Hagan, H., Jarlais, D. C., Friedman, S. R., Purchase, D., & Alter, M. J. (1995). Reduced risk of hepatitis B and hepatitis C among injection drug users in the Tacoma syringe exchange program [see comments]. Am J Public Health, 85(11), 1531–1537. Retrieved from R:/P1-100/p000050.pdf
National Research Council. (1995). Needle Exchange Programs Reduce HIV Transmission among People Who Inject Illegal Drugs.
Office of Technology Assessment of the US Congress. (1995). The Effectiveness of AIDS Prevention Efforts.
Sandala, L., Lurie, P., Sunkutu, M. R., Chani, E. M., Hudes, E. S., & Hearst, N. (1995). “Dry sex” and HIV infection among women attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic in Lusaka, Zambia. AIDS, 9 Suppl 1, S61-8. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8562002
Stimson, G. V. (1995). AIDS and injecting drug use in the United Kingdom, 1987-1993: the policy response and the prevention of the epidemic. Soc Sci Med, 41(5), 699–716. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=7502102
Deschamps, M. M., Pape, J. W., Hafner, A., & Johnson, W. D. (1996). Heterosexual transmission of HIV in Haiti. Ann Intern Med, 125(4), 324–330. Retrieved from R:/P1-100/p000035.pdf
Glantz, S. A., John Slade, Lisa A. Bero, Peter Hanauer, & Barnes, D. E. (1996). The Cigarette Papers. Berkeley: University of California Press. Retrieved from http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8489p25j
Nelson, K. E., Celentano, D. D., Eiumtrakol, S., Hoover, D. R., Beyrer, C., Suprasert, S., … Khamboonruang, C. (1996). Changes in sexual behavior and a decline in HIV infection among young men in Thailand [see comments]. N Engl J Med, 335(5), 297–303. Retrieved from R:/P1-100/p000094.pdf
World Bank. (1996). Staff appraisal report: Indonesia HIV/AIDS and STDs prevention and management project.
Civic, D., & Wilson, D. (1996). Dry sex in Zimbabwe and implications for condom use. Soc Sci Med, 42(1), 91–98. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8745110
Dolan, K., Hall, W., & Wodak, A. (1996). Methadone maintenance reduces injecting in prison. Bmj, 312(7039), 1162. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8620161
Stimson, G. V., Hunter, G. M., Donoghoe, M. C., Rhodes, T., Parry, J. V., & Chalmers, C. P. (1996). HIV-1 prevalence in community-wide samples of injecting drug users in London, 1990-1993. AIDS, 10(6), 657–666. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8780821
UNAIDS, & WHO. (1996, June 1). The HIV/AIDS Situation in mid-996. Global and Regional highlights.